Pedagogy
Have you ever tried to play your instrument, but your body simply wouldn't do what you tell it? You just want to blow air on 1, or blow a steady airstream without any shaking, but nothing you do gets the response you want? What about pain and tension that interfered with your musical potential? I've been there too, and I came out the other side as a functional musician again.
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What I had was a performance disorder called musician's dystonia. As you can probably imagine, this problem had a huge impact on my musical life. It instilled in me a need for pedagogical methods formed around reliable and empirically sound instruction. This need drove me to focus on efficiency and function. For these reasons, I find that academic literature is the best place to start a discussion of brass pedagogy.
1. How do we learn?
We learn by example. Daniel Kohut describes the natural learning process as: observation, mental imagery, imitation, and trial and error. We see someone do a thing, we decide we also want to do that thing, then we imagine how to do that thing. As we try and fail, and continue to observe, our mental image of how to do the thing evolves. Our muscles learn better balance and efficiency. Eventually, we figure out how to succeed.
Through repetition and practice we get better and better. Our brain begins to do what's called "chunking". When we learn something, from an action like throwing a ball to a phone number, we break the information into a sequence of steps. Early on, the steps are recalled as declarative knowledge, where each step has to be actively remembered, causing pauses while they are recalled. "Chunking" is the process where our brain learns to combine sequences of many simple steps into fewer, more complex steps. With enough experience the steps are recalled automatically using procedural memory, creating smoother and less-conscious actions.
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Think of when you learned to read. At first you have to sound out the letters. Once you learn the sounds of each letter, you start to learn what sounds particular groups of letters make, and stop having to read each individual letter. Eventually you know whole words at sight without having to sound them out, recalling them subconsciously from procedural memory. This is chunking. You can probably think of several more examples off the top of your head.
The process is the same when learning an action, such as throwing a ball. Once we have learned the movements, instead of thinking haltingly about each part of action (how to hold the ball, how far back to pull your arm, moving it forward, etc), we think of multiple steps in a single movement. In this way, difficult actions go from clunky and unnatural to smooth and effortless, eventually reaching automaticity.
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Almost every action we do is performed automatically from procedural memory. We don't think about how we walk backwards while taking to friends, or how we throw laundry into a hamper, or how we stand on our tiptoes to put a box on a high shelf; and yet, all of these tasks are incredibly complex. Our brains are designed to function from procedural memory to free our minds for other focuses.
2. What interferes with playing our instrument naturally?
Pedagogy can influence the development of performance disorders when it interferes with the natural procedural memory processes described above.
Reinvestment theory argues that consciously controlling the movements involved with performing a task disrupts our natural execution abilities. As discussed above, every task we perform requires learning a sequence of steps. Our body wants to perform all these steps automatically, with us involved as little as possible. By telling the body how to perform part of the action sequence, we interrupt the natural "chunking" process, and stop performing automatically from our procedural memory. This interference makes the performance less successful. It's just not as efficient to take over control of the body.
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Think of the centipede and the ant: the centipede is chasing the ant to eat it. Suddenly, the ant stops, but right before he's eaten he asks the centipede, "which leg do you move first?" As the ant runs off again, the centipede stands frozen, trying to think of how to walk, and never moves again. (The first time I heard this story was on Doug Yeo's website the same day I read his section on "valsalva maneuver")
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(The concept behind reinvestment has been written about in different settings. Literature about "choking under pressure" discusses the disadvantages of "explicit monitoring" and "self-focus". Gabriele Wulf et al took reinvestment a step further and developed the "constrained action hypothesis" and internal vs external focus of attention. In all cases, focusing on your own movements while performing a task causes problems.)
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Examples of "reinvesting" while playing an instrument are controlling the embouchure or tongue while playing (or, in my case, the respiratory system). In these examples, your body hypothetically has learned what shapes to make, and where to place the tongue, in order to create the desired sounds. A natural performance would be allowing the body to do its job while we focus on what we want to achieve. As Arnold Jacobs says, we should treat the embouchure like the larynx. However, musicians take charge, and disrupt this natural process; and, like an over-controlling boss, usually just end up making things worse.
Eckart Altenmuller theorizes that, if not stopped, the disruptions to performance from "reinvesting" can eventually become a permanent part of how you play your instrument. Your body begins to associate whatever jerk, tremor, or hesitation you experience as part of the necessary sequence of steps. If this happens, the musician can become incapable of performing without the disruption to their playing, possibly leading to the formation of a performance disorder like musician's dystonia. Changes in embouchure and/or breathing technique have also been shown to increase the chances of embouchure problems, further suggesting that controlling the body leads to problems in performing.
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Let's create an example of how embouchure dystonia can develop.
You got a new mouthpiece. It makes a great sound, but your slurs feel loose and difficult to control. You remember hearing about Reinhardt's "Pivot System", so you try really focusing on controlling your embouchure when slurring up or down. It works for a while, but you notice that your tone isn't steady after a slur up from F to Bb. You increase your control of that interval, but it worsens into a slight tremor; then it starts happening when slurring from Bb to D above middle C. Then when slurring down. Within a month, your embouchure shakes after every slur, and when you're really nervous (or just having a bad day) it shakes whenever you play.
Now, let's make an example of how the hesitation problem I had (sometimes called "valsalva maneuver") can develop.
you joined a new ensemble with a new director. Turns out they're very strict and yelled at a few musicians who made too many mistakes. Suddenly, you're under a lot of pressure. Playing in front of the new director makes you nervous, and you're worried anytime you have to play for them, feeling pressure in your chest. Your worry starts to bleed into your practice sessions, including the tightness in your chest. When you're really nervous, the tightness in your chest makes it hard to turn the air around on time. The director comments on your entrances being late, so you focus more on your breathing to try and get notes to speak properly; but it doesn't improve. One day, you realize that your chest is always tight when you play, and you can't seem to ever turn your air around on time. Eventually, the chest tightness and delayed entrances are constant, and you have no idea how to fix it. (Side note: this is not my own story, so try not to read into it too much)
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These examples illustrate the possible formation of fairly severe performance problems, using general models designed by Eckart Altenmuller. Musician's dystonia is complex and fairly individualized, so problems can stem from all sorts of causes; or seem to come out of nowhere. What's important is to limit factors that are linked to the development of these problems.
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3. Well then, how should we play?
If an internal focus of attention (i.e., consciously controlling the movements involved with completing an action) interrupts and worsens a performance, is the solution an external focus of attention? Short answer: yes!
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Gabriele Wulf wrote about the concept of internal vs external focus of attention (FoA). An external FoA is focusing on the outcome you want to achieve; in our case, the sound we want the audience to hear. While thinking internally is shown to hinder performance, thinking externally does just the opposite: it helps the performer to execute their task automatically from procedural memory. Automatic doesn't mean performing mindlessly, simply that your brain power isn't being wasted on controlling your body. The mind should still be fully engaged on the music and their desired sound.
FoA has been tested on simple tasks (jumping, balancing, force production) and complex tasks (putting, tennis, juggling). It's even been tested on piano and wind musicians. Every test has shown that, compared to an internal FoA, thinking externally improves the quality of performance, lengthens how long the memory is retained, and automatically transfers that memory to performing similar tasks. It also uses decreased muscle activity while producing a greater amount of force, meaning it takes less energy and creates less exhaustion in the muscles. It is, in essence, a more efficient and functional way of performing.
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Altenmuller even suggests that reversing an internal FoA from a musician might be a treatment for performance disorders like musician's dystonia.
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The piano study by Duke et al is particularly apt. In the study, they had piano students trill "as evenly as possible" at 75% their maximum speed. They were instructed to focus on either their fingers, the keys, the hammers hitting the strings, or the sound in the room. The study found that, the more external their attention, the better their performance. This suggests that even a partially internal FoA is less effective than a fully external one.
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4. How do you apply all of this to playing and teaching?
It's all about efficiency.
Studies have found that an internal FoA produces a less efficient use of muscles, causing greater-than-necessary muscle activity compared to an external FoA. Meanwhile, focusing your attention on the outcome produces greater accuracy with less muscle activity. The more efficient muscle activity could be part of why playing and learning is so much better with an external FoA.
In teaching brass instruments, my aim is to guide my students/clients towards greater efficiency in a few ways:
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1. Create an easy and comfortable environment of fun, to help the student be relaxed. Tension, worry and fear get in the way of making music. I find a lot of this tension stems from a fear of sounding bad, making mistakes, or letting someone down. Leave thoughts of "proving yourself" to someone (or to yourself) at the door, and let's have some fun. We all make mistakes, particularly when trying something new. Be okay with that. Studying Alexander Technique is very helpful for this as well.
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(Something to keep in mind: there is such thing as "facilitative performance anxiety". Performance anxiety speeds up the brain and increases the heart rate. While this can make it hard to think straight and hurt a performance, if harnessed and directed into working for you, it can make your performance even better. Once I learned to use my anxiety to help my playing, I started to truly love making music for an audience.)
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2. Move some air! I like to think of it as a matter of energy through the horn. If you're not moving enough air to create the needed sounds, then it doesn't matter what you're thinking of. You should feel tired after playing an intense piece, and not just in your chops. However, some students find it hard to balance "blow so much energetic air that you're sweating" and "stay relaxed". That's why we'll work a lot on this. Don't let "blow a lot of air" translate to "work harder without getting more results".
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3. Most importantly, hear the intended sound! Not just the pitch, not just the tone (although these are both crucial), but the full complete sound that the audience would hear in a perfect world. What precisely would [insert your favorite musician here] sound like playing this on stage? Not just the solo you're working on or whatever, but your morning warmup too. The hardest part, and what we'll work on a lot, is maintaining that focus once horn hits lips (This is similar in concept to Arnold Jacobs' Song and Wind, only I suppose not as eloquent). I find that we can sit and mentally prepare as hard as we can, but once horn hits face it all goes out the window and our old habits come out.
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Sessions and lessons will focus on these three things, and applying them to your instrument. Depending on where you're at, we would apply it on anything from solo repertoire to long tones. However, it's not about what you're playing, but how you're playing it.
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5. Bibliography
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Altenmuller E, Jabusch HC. Focal Dystonia in Musicians: phenomenology, pathophysiology, triggering factors and treatments. Medical Problems of Performing Artists. 2010; 25(1): 3-9m.
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Altenmuller E, Ioannou C, Raab M, & Lobinger B. Apollo’s Curse: causes and cures of motor failures in musicians: a proposal for a new classification. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2014; 826: 161-286.
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Altenmüller E, Furuya S. Apollos Gift and Curse: Making Music as a Model for Adaptive and Maladaptive Plasticity. Neuroforum. 2017; 23(2): 57-75.
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Duke RA, Cash CD, & Allen SE. Focus of Attention Affects Performance of Motor Skills in Music. Journal of Research in Music Education. 2011; 59(1): 44-55.
Frederikson B. Song and Wind. Windsong Press, 1996.
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Nishida H. The influence of chunking on reading comprehension: Investigating the acquisition of chunking skill. Journal of AsiaTEFL. 2013; 10(4): 1-239.
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Gobet F. Chunking models of expertise: Implications for education. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 2005; 19(2): 183-204.
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Gobet F, Lane PC, Croker S, Cheng PC, Jones G, Oliver I, & Pine JM. Chunking Mechanisms in Human Learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2001; 5(6): 236-243.
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Gröpel P, Mesagno C. Choking interventions in sports: A systematic review. International Review of sport and exercise psychology. 2019; 12(1): 176-201.
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Kohut D. Musical Performance: learning theory and pedagogy. Prentice Hall, 1985.
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Magill R, Anderson D. Motor Learning and Control. McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2010.
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Marchant D, Grieg M, Scott C. Attentional Focusing Instructions Influence Force Production and Muscular Activity During Isokinetic Elbow Flexions. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2009; 23(8): 2358-2366.
Masters R, Maxwell J. The Theory of Reinvestment. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008; 1(2): 160-183.
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Mornell A, Wulf G. Adopting an External Focus of Attention Enhance Musical Performance. Journal of Research in Music Ed. 2018; 66(4): 375-391.
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Steinmetz A, Stang A, Kornhuber M, Röllinghoff M, Delank KS, & Altenmüller E. From Embouchure Problems to Embouchure Dystonia? A Survey of Self-Reported Embouchure Disorders in 585 Professional Orchestra Brass Players. International archives of occupational and environmental health. 2014; 87(7): 783-792.
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Wulf G. Attentional Focus and Motor Learning: a review of 15 years. Int Review of Sport and Exercise Psych. 2013; 6(1): 77-104.
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Zuhdi N, Taylor M, & Chesky K. A Systematic Review of Music Performance Anxiety (MPA) Research: Implications for Researchers, Schools of Music Administrators, Music Pedagogues, and PAM Clinicians. Texas Center for Performing Arts Health, 2019. https://tcpah.unt.edu/sites/default/files/MPA-PAMA-Poster-Final.pdf
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